A Few Words About Stress

There is a feeling that the more frequently some concept is used in day-to-day ordinary life, the more blurry and less defined it becomes. Presumably, the same is true for psychology as a science. In this case, I would say it’s more related to psychophysiology since both trigger and implement mechanisms of the notion we are going to take a look at are linked directly to a material substratum. What I mean is the widespread idea of stress.

It’s unlikely that someone has never heard the word. Nevertheless, in a commonplace sense, it is not defined, its content is not articulated, and understanding is not generated. At best, one might say stress is something negative and dangerous, and when asked, “Why do you think so,” one might produce something like “Well…because it said so on TV”.

Well, let’s consider stress more thoroughly.

To begin with, I need to emphasize that stress is not a medical diagnosis. Stress is a natural response that has been generated throughout millions of years of evolution in order to adapt the organism according to a modifying environment, and thus is pertinent for each person. Furthermore, it is impossible for an organism, people included, to exist without being subjected to stress! At this point, it’s quite acceptable to end the article. If you want more information about what stress is, you can continue reading.

Even though the idea of stress is strongly associated with the name Hans Selye, English scientist Robert Hooke was the first man to start using the notion (unless one counts medieval belletristic). He invented the concept in the context of the law of elasticity, where resilient objects under both tractive and pressing forces are considered. As we might see, it refers to something subjected to pressure (hence the word stress).

In relation to alive, self-balancing systems, human beings and animals in the first place, the evolution of stress research germinated in the current of digestion intensity of stomach and bowel investigations under the duress of anxiety and fright. American physiologist Walter Cannon published the outcomes of his research in the book “Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Range” in 1915, where the author concluded that the most probable responses of an animal under such conditions are escaping and counteraction (flight or fight theory), depending on circumstances given. To make such reactions feasible, consequences of changes provoked by environmental influences have to happen, for instance, a need to hide or run away because of the apparition of a predator.

In his work “The Wisdom of the Body” 1932 Cannon introduced a concept of homeostasis to describe the process of intrinsic balancing of essential biological systems, for preserving the health of the body and its survival. Understood from this point, stress implements a regulatory function of controlling variables induced by external ambience.

Nowadays, the doctrine of homeostasis has obtained wide popularity and is often explained peremptorily and vulgarly as being an inborn, instinctive intention of a healthy organism to reduce energy expenditure. If you share this point of view in an all-or-nothing fashion, there is no sense in beginning a discussion. If there is still something for you that is unclear, dubious, and controversial, then it’s quite possible that the concept of “nonequilibrium state”, as well as the theory of “over-situational activity”, might be helpful for you.

Following stress investigations have been strongly connected with Hans Selye. Since his name is well-known in all parts of the world, and plenty of pieces of information about his research are accessible, I will underscore only a few aspects of his works.

1. Selye’s triad (triad of stress).

a. As the author considered stress mostly as a physiological phenomenon, he gave emphasis on such outcomes of stress reaction on the body as a growth of adrenal cortex provoked by continuing succession of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis reaction pattern;

b. Gastrointestinal mucosa ex ulceration promoting nascency of gastritis and stomach ulcer. It deserves to be mentioned that two Australian scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize in 2005 for discovering the infection origin (bacteria Helicobacter pylori influence) of the diseases indicated above. However, apart from stress-inducing and infectious theories, there are contemplations that have been coming up off and on, that stress is only an initiating agent, which decompensates medically fragile components of the body, the digestion system for example, and, therefore, H.p. is not a cause, but a consequence of morbid functioning of the body apparatus and systems;

c. Degenerative changes, thymic-lymphatic apparatus subinvolution or involution. In simpler terms – the negative impact on the immune system is depression.

2. General adaptation syndrome (GAS). In common language, GAS can be defined as an assembly of bodily changes taking place under both changing internal and external environments for the purpose of surviving enforcement. In accordance with Selye's assumptions, these alternations occur throughout three stages:

a. Anxiety stage (or alarm; multiple names can be used) – the very beginning of a stress factor exposure that causes a general anxiety reaction, which means the process of an extreme mobilization range of the body’s adaptive resources. It is accompanied by biochemical and physiological pathways, activation of the sympathetic part of the autonomic division of the nervous system (now and then in opposite – parasympathetic; the reflex of apparent death is a sterling example), suprarenal cortex activation, catecholamines release (epinephrine, norepinephrine), glucocorticoid (cortisol), b-endorphin, thyroid hormones etc. At this stage, the shock phase can be designated – body resistance range decreasing, autonomic and somatic division of the nervous system malfunctioning, and the counter-shock phase – body resources mobilization process. The bodily state comes to a regular level of functioning with non-crucial overcompensation as soon as the intensity of the stress factor alleviates or subsides altogether (the training status effect);

b. Resistance stage (counteraction) – occurs when long and repeated (or persistent, because of failure to overcome the situation or escape it) stress factor influence. On this stage, organism functional components accommodate balanced consumption of resources and thus adapt the body to new functioning modes under the pressure of stress factors under changed conditions;

c. The exhaustion stage relates to the body’s adaptive resources exhaustion, decreased organism resistance, dysregulation and damage of organs and tissues, and death.

Most likely, the first move away from the idea of stress considered as a purely physiological phenomenon to its understanding as a subject of psychological science was made by R. Lazarus. This shift might be perceived as the beginning of a new scientific area – the psychology of stress. The seminal contemplation was that human beings are not only inactive, passively receiving stress tension from the outside world and responding along with automatically proceeding physiological reactions and processes exclusively, but also capable of regulating any stress factors level by estimating their value for a person’s life. In the time following, this stance was claimed in a book, “Stress, Appraisal and Coping,” written with S. Folkman as a co-author. From the very name of the book, it seems precisely that one is seen as an actor capable of influencing or even regulating stress tension at some point. In this work, the authors also consider stress-coping strategies. But let this be for another article.

Needless to say, a number of other scientists have also been considering the concept.

However, what is stress?

Stress is a non-specific bodily response to any demands. What does “non-specific” mean? It means that the body’s response does not depend on the nature of the stressor. In simple terms, even though stress can be triggered by a variety of stimuli and in different forms, the response will always proceed in the same way.

Stress is a psychophysiological response of the body to external influences that exceed the limits of adaptive reference values.

From a physiological perspective, stress is a collection of stereotypical, biologically predisposed reactions that initially activate organisms for action (resistance, fight, flight), aiming to create the best possible conditions to overcome danger and increase chances for survival.

From a psychological standpoint, stress is a state of psychological tension that arises under the pressure of challenging or severe environmental impacts. The consequences of such impacts can be both positive and negative for the body.

Triggers:

1. Stressor – provokes an adaptation process. To make any effect a stressor, a combination of external conditions and personal characteristics is necessary. Different stimuli may lead to the same reaction, and conversely, one stimulus may be perceived and experienced in various ways. Conventionally, the following types of stressors can be identified:

a. Physical nature – temperature, atmosphere pressure, humidity, chemical composition of the air, electromagnetic and other types of radiation;

b. Psychological nature – fatigue, irritability, depressive mood, low self-esteem and so on;

c. Socio-environmental aspect – patterns of relationships, economic, political changes, illness, ending relationships, and so forth.

d. Existential-worldview character – the meaning of one’s life, human destiny, the horizon of possibilities…

2. Stress reaction – defined by the nature of stress, duration of its exposure, and personal sensitivity to stress factors.

One’s response to various effects, events, facts, and situations is expressed through emotional experiences of happiness and sorrow, satisfaction and dissatisfaction, unease and calmness, and so on.

3. Biochemical, physiological and psychological reactions consistently arise according to the previous point.

4. The formation of stress response also depends on psycho-individual features (such as temperament, temper, disposition), knowledge, abilities, skills, development of volitional powers, intelligence level, competence with self-regulation methods.

It is possible to distinguish between physiological and psychological types of stress quite conventionally.

1. Physiological stress – mechanical, thermal, radiological – arises as a result of stimuli affecting sensory or metabolic processes. For example, exposure to bright light after prolonged darkness, intense physical activity, or skin burns. Physiological stress manifests in subjective sensations such as malaise, fatigue, and pain and objective indicators like heart rate, blood pressure, skin condition, etc. This type of stress can also lead to functional disruptions.

2. Psychological stress can be subdivided into:

a. Informational stress – perceptual overload, high workload, high levels of achievement motivation with limited physical resources and time;

b. Emotional stress – arises due to uncertainty and potential threat, in response to traumatic or joyful events, in situations of conflicts between motives and needs both intrinsic and interpersonal;

c. Communicative stress – a personal response triggered by a discrepancy between demands on one side and one’s knowledge, abilities, and skills on the other, leading to a breakdown in interaction at a given time.

There is an assumption that all stress is physiological, as a range of physiological reactions occur while simultaneously being emotional, as it triggers experiences relevant to an individual.

The following forms of stress reactions are considered typical:

1. Emotional (psychological):

i. Sthenic (mobilizing) – anger, rage, restlessness, indignation, desire to assert oneself;

ii. Asthenic (immobilizing) – dysfunctional anxiety, offence, feelings of defectiveness;

2. Behavioural – commonly referred to as flight, fight, or freeze responses (which can occur on a psychological level when a person disengages from the present moment and starts to focus on unrelated thoughts).

In terms of its impact on the organism, stress can also be classified as:

Eustress – a type of stress that has a health-improving, training effect on the body. Using Selye’s terminology, it can be said that a person successfully navigates through the resistance stage, preventing a transition to the third stage of exhaustion.

Distress – a process that leads to disorganization in the functioning of organs, tissues, and body systems due to depletion of adaptive potential. Distress negatively affects human behaviour and can lead to death as the worst outcome.

Various tools can be utilized to help the body adapt to stress:

 Coping strategies (result-oriented and deconstructive) – conscious efforts aimed at changing problematic situations and meeting basic needs. Emotional-oriented coping strategies tend to involve expressing negatively coloured emotions, while problem-oriented coping strategies focus on analyzing problem situations and finding ways to resolve them. In this position, a person acknowledges their limits in influencing others and the world in general, accepts the permanence of nature's rules, and is prepared to act and change their behaviour according to them with activity and flexibility. It may seem puzzling that, now and then, a person who is aware of and acknowledges the limiting aspects of life becomes more relaxed and creative in actualising their plans and thoughts.

 Protective mechanisms – a person's unconscious actions aimed at protecting the body from real or perceived threats in the environment. While psychological defences can help individuals survive under difficult conditions, they may hinder problem-solving in specific situations.

Despite individuals’ limited physical and psychological resources, periods of intense activity should be balanced with rest periods and changes in occupation or activities. Tension inevitably requires release and reintegration.

A freely interpreted myth of multitasking – “do as much and as well as possible in a short period of time and die quickly!” – for anyone who tends to grind away at things.