Asia-Pacific Mental Health Academic Pathways: Regional Hub

The Asia-Pacific region presents a fascinating convergence of distinct mental health education systems that reflect each nation's unique cultural values, healthcare priorities, and professional development trajectories. This regional hub synthesises academic pathways across Australia, China, and Japan, three nations representing Commonwealth standards, rapidly evolving Chinese modernisation, and traditional Japanese professional frameworks.

While these systems differ substantially in structure and cultural context, they share common challenges: addressing severe workforce shortages, adapting Western therapeutic models to local contexts, and balancing traditional healing practices with evidence-based approaches. This comparative analysis provides essential insights for professionals navigating qualification recognition, students planning international careers, and organisations developing cross-regional training programs.

Table of Contents | Jump Ahead

• Understanding Regional Education Systems
• Profession-by-Profession Regional Patterns
• Regional Mobility and Credential Recognition
• Regional Educational Trends and Innovations
• Comparative Strengths and Challenges
• Salary and Compensation Comparison
• Student and Professional Mobility Considerations
• Future Directions and Regional Collaboration
• Quick Reference: Degree Equivalencies
• Conclusion
• Related Resources

Regional Snapshot

Understanding Regional Education Systems

Structural Frameworks

• Standardised National System: AQF Levels 7-10 for higher education
• Professional Registration: AHPRA manages most health professions through specialised boards
• International Model: Commonwealth-influenced, globally recognised qualifications
• Language Advantage: English instruction facilitates international mobility

China: Ministry of Education (MOE) Structure

• Tiered System: Bachelor's (Benke, 4-5 years), Master's (Shuoshi, 2-3 years), Doctorate (Boshi, 3-4 years)
• Dual Oversight: MOE for education, National Health Commission (NHC) for healthcare professions
• Rapid Evolution: Post-2017 reforms establishing national psychology licensure (CPP)
• Scale Challenge: Vast population, significant urban-rural disparities

Japan: MEXT and MHLW Coordination

• Educational Authority: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)
• Professional Licensure: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) for all healthcare licenses
• Historic Milestone: 2018 establishment of Certified Public Psychologist (CPP) national license
• Cultural Integration: Unique therapies (Morita, Naikan) alongside Western approaches

Academic Year Structures

Profession-by-Profession Regional Patterns

1. Clinical Psychology

Educational Pathways Comparison

• 4+2 Pathway: 4-year degree + 2-year supervised internship
• 5+1 Pathway (Most Common): 4-year degree + 1-year honours + 2-year professional master's + 1-year registrar program
• 6-Year Pathway: Integrated professional master's with supervision
• Professional Doctorate (DPsych): 3-4 years, combines training and research
• Key Feature: Area-of-practice endorsements (Clinical, Forensic, Organisational, Health, Educational, Sport)

China: Emerging National Credentialing

• Undergraduate: 4-year psychology degree (Benke)
• Graduate Required: Master's in Clinical/Counselling Psychology (2-3 years) essential for practice
• National License (2018): Certified Public Psychologist (CPP) requires master's + supervised hours + national exam
• Legacy System: Chinese Psychological Society (CPS) Clinical Psychologist credential (3,000 supervised hours)
• Rapid Growth: Field expanding quickly with increasing mental health awareness

Japan: Historic 2018 Reform

• Undergraduate: 4-year psychology bachelor's (Gakushi)
• Graduate Essential: 2-year master's in clinical psychology for serious practice
• National License (CPP): Certified Public Psychologist (Kōnin Shinrishi) established 2018 - Japan's first national psychology license
• Dual Credentialing: Many hold both CPP (national) and Certified Clinical Psychologist (JACCP, private organisation)
• Cultural Challenge: Overcoming stigma, adapting Western therapy to Japanese cultural values (wa, harmony)

Training Emphasis Differences

2. Psychiatry

Medical Education and Speciality Training

• Medical School: MBBS (5-6 years undergraduate) or MD (4 years graduate-entry)
• Internship: 1 year (PGY1)
• Residency: 1-2 years general medicine (PGY2-3)
• RANZCP Fellowship: 5 years minimum (Stage 1: 3 years foundation; Stage 2: 2 years advanced training)
• Total: ~11-13 years from high school to fellowship (FRANZCP)
• Subspecialties: CATs (Certificates of Advanced Training) in child, old age, addiction, forensic, consultation-liaison

China: 5-Year Medical + 3-Year Residency

• Medical Degree: 5-year MBBS or Clinical Medicine (Linchuang Yixue)
• Residency: 3-year psychiatry residency post-graduation
• Total: ~8 years to practice psychiatry
• Licensure: Practising Physician Certificate (Zhiye Yishi) from National Health Commission
• Emerging Subspecialties: Child psychiatry, geriatric psychiatry, addiction

Japan: 6-Year Medical + 2-Year General + 4-5 Year Psychiatry

• Medical School: 6-year Doctor of Medicine (Igakushi)
• General Residency: 2-year mandatory initial clinical training (post-2004 reform)
• Psychiatry Specialisation: 4-5 years through Japanese Society of Psychiatry and Neurology (JSPN)
• Total: ~12-13 years to board certification
• Board Certification: Board Certified Psychiatrist (Seishinka Senmon-i)

Workforce and Practice Patterns

3. Social Work

Professional Frameworks

• Undergraduate: 4-year BSW (Bachelor of Social Work) with 980+ hours field placement
• Graduate-Entry: 2-year MSW (Qualifying) for career changers
• Registration: Voluntary AASW (Australian Association of Social Workers) membership (no AHPRA regulation)
• Mental Health Specialisation: AMHSW (Accredited Mental Health Social Worker) requires MSW + 2 years supervised practice
• Medicare Provider Status: AMHSWs eligible for Medicare rebates

China: National Certification Levels

• Undergraduate: 4-year Social Work (Shehui Gongzuo) bachelor's
• National Certification: Three levels administered by Ministry of Civil Affairs
• Assistant Social Worker (bachelor's + 2 years)
• Social Worker (bachelor's + 4 years or master's + 2 years)
• Senior Social Worker (5+ years as certified)
• Mental Health Role: Emerging clinical mental health social work speciality
• Field Placement: Minimum 800-1,000 hours during bachelor's

Japan: Dual National License System

• Certified Social Worker (CSW, Shakai Fukushishi): General social work (established 1987)
• Psychiatric Social Worker (PSW, Seishin Hoken Fukushishi): Mental health specialisation (established 1998)
• Education: 4-year bachelor's in social welfare + specialised coursework and practicum
• National Exams: CSW (25-35% pass rate), PSW (60-70% pass rate)
• Practice Focus: CSW in hospitals, welfare offices, child welfare; PSW in psychiatric hospitals, mental health centres, rehabilitation

Regional Trends

4. Counselling Psychology

Australia:

• Integrated within psychology pathways (less differentiation from clinical)
• Area-of-practice endorsement: "Counselling Psychology" (primarily New South Wales)
• School counselling: Separate educational psychology endorsement

China:

• Not clearly differentiated from clinical psychology in current system
• Counselling psychology (Zixun Xinlixue) often taught within clinical programs
• School counselling and career counselling as applied areas
• Post-2017: National Psychological Counsellor certification reformed (various organisations now offer credentials)

Japan:

• School Counselling (School Counsellor, SC): Major employment area, typically part-time contract positions in schools
• Career Counselling: National qualification under MHLW (Certified Career Consultant)
• Integrated with clinical psychology for most practitioners
• Strong emphasis on school refusal (futōkō) and bullying (ijime) intervention

5. Marriage and Family Therapy

• No separate MFT profession; practised by psychologists, social workers
• Family therapy specialisations within psychology (MPsych programs, continuing education)
• Medicare provider numbers available through psychology or social work credentials

China:

• Emerging specialisation within psychology and counselling
• Master's programs with family therapy concentration at Beijing Normal University, East China Normal
• Certificate programs (1-3 years, part-time) from professional training institutes
• Integration of Confucian family values, collectivist approaches

Japan:

• Not standalone profession
• Japanese Association for Family Therapy (JAFT) established 1984
• Training primarily through certificate programs, workshops, and supervision
• Cultural adaptation essential (ie family system concepts, hierarchy, harmony)
• Practice settings: Psychiatric hospitals, child guidance centres, family courts

6. Occupational Therapy

Educational Requirements and Licensure

• Education: 4-year BOccThy or 2-year qualifying master's
• Accreditation: Occupational Therapy Council (OTC)
• National Registration: AHPRA (Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency)
• Mental Health Emphasis: Strong psychiatric OT tradition, psychosocial rehabilitation
• Clinical Hours: Minimum 810 hours (typically 18-24 weeks including mental health rotation)

China: Emerging Profession

• Education: 4-year Rehabilitation Therapy (Kangfu Zhiliaoxue) with OT specialisation
• Status: Developing field (formal programs emerged past 15-20 years)
• Licensure: No unified national OT license yet; practitioners work under rehabilitation therapy credentials
• Mental Health OT: Emerging specialisation in psychiatric rehabilitation, sensory integration for autism
• Key Institutions: Capital Medical University, Sichuan University, Sun Yat-sen University

Japan: Strong Psychiatric OT Tradition

• Education: 4-year bachelor's (some 3-year programs exist)
• National License: Occupational Therapist (Sagyō Ryōhōshi) established 1965, administered by MHLW
• Mental Health Focus: Significant proportion of Japanese OTs specialise in psychiatry throughout careers
• Traditional Integration: Use of Japanese cultural activities (origami, tea ceremony, calligraphy) as therapeutic modalities
• Clinical Hours: Minimum 810 hours total, with mandatory mental health rotation (8 weeks typical)

Mental Health Practice Characteristics

7. Creative Therapies (Art, Music, Drama)

• Limited Formal Programs: No undergraduate art or drama therapy degrees; music therapy emerging
• Training: Primarily postgraduate diplomas, certificate programs, or study abroad
• International Credentials: Many practitioners hold ATCB (US), ANZATA (AU/NZ), or UK credentials
• Practice: Private practice, hospitals, rehabilitation centres, community programs
• Regulation: Unregulated; practitioners typically hold primary credentials (psychology, OT, nursing, social work)

China:

• Art Therapy: No formal degree programs; training through workshops, certificate programs, international study
• Music Therapy: Some formal programs (Central Conservatory of Music, Beijing - first program 1997; Shanghai Conservatory)
• Drama Therapy: Minimal presence; psychodrama more established
• Professional Status: Not regulated; practitioners often work under psychology or related credentials
• Chinese Music Therapy Association: Offers professional certification

Japan:

• Art Therapy: Limited formal programs; some graduate courses at universities (Kyoto Bunkyo University)
• Music Therapy: Most established of creative therapies
• Formal bachelor's programs at music colleges (Senzoku Gakuen, Elisabeth University of Music, Hiroshima Bunka Gakuen)
• Japanese Music Therapy Association (JMTA) offers Certified Music Therapist credential
• Drama Therapy: Least developed; psychodrama more common
• Practice Settings: Psychiatric hospitals, special education, elderly care, rehabilitation centres

Regional Pattern: Creative therapies remain developing fields across Asia-Pacific, with limited regulatory frameworks and heavy reliance on international training models and local adaptation.

8. Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing

Undergraduate Nursing Education

• Degree: Bachelor of Nursing (BN), 3 years
• Mental Health Content: Mandatory psychiatric nursing rotation (typically 4-8 weeks)
• AHPRA Registration: National nursing registration required
• Specialisation Pathways: Graduate Diploma, Master of Mental Health Nursing, clinical experience

China: 4-Year Bachelor's with Psychiatric Nursing Course

• Degree: Bachelor of Science in Nursing (Huli Xue), 4 years
• Mental Health Content: Mandatory psychiatric nursing course + clinical rotation (4-8 weeks)
• National License: National Nursing License Examination (Hushi Zhiye Zige Kaoshi)
• Speciality Certification: Psychiatric/Mental Health Nursing Specialist (offered by Chinese Nursing Association, requires 2-3 years experience + specialised training)

Japan: 4-Year Bachelor's with Psychiatric Nursing

• Degree: Bachelor of Science in Nursing (Kango Gakushi), 4 years
• Mental Health Content: Mandatory psychiatric nursing course + 2-3 week clinical practicum
• National License: Registered Nurse (Kangoshi) from MHLW (85-95% pass rate)
• Speciality Certification:
• Certified Nurse Specialist (CNS) in Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing (requires master's + 5 years experience)
• Certified Nurse (CN) in Psychiatric Nursing (requires 5 years experience + specialised training)

Advanced Practice and Specialisation

Regional Challenge: Historically high psychiatric hospitalisation rates (especially Japan and China) are slowly transitioning toward community-based models, changing nursing roles from long-term institutional care to community mental health, crisis intervention, and recovery-oriented practice.

9. Addiction Services

• No Separate Profession: Provided by psychiatrists (addiction medicine subspecialty), psychologists (addiction specialisation), social workers, nurses, counsellors
• Training: Specialised master's programs, graduate certificates in addiction studies
• Settings: Public hospital addiction units, NGO services (e.g., alcohol and drug services), private rehabilitation
• Approaches: Harm reduction prominent, medication-assisted treatment (MAT), psychosocial interventions

China:

• Professional Pathways: Psychiatry (addiction psychiatry fellowship), psychology (addiction specialisation), social work, nursing
• Formal Training: Limited specialised degree programs; training through on-the-job experience, short-term courses
• National Institute on Drug Dependence (NIDD): Peking University - leading research and training centre
• Unique Focus: Internet and gaming addiction (specialised treatment centres, significant social concern)
• Legal Context: Strict drug laws, compulsory treatment system (transitioning toward voluntary models)
• SMARPP Program: Evidence-based CBT program developed in Japan, adopted in China

Japan:

• Professional Pathways: Psychiatrists, psychiatric social workers (PSW - common path), psychologists, nurses
• Training: Limited formal addiction counselling programs; professional organisation training (Japanese Society of Alcohol-Related Problems, Japanese Society of Addiction Psychiatry)
• Cultural Approaches:
• Danshukai (断酒会): Japanese abstinence-based mutual aid group (predates AA in Japan)
• SMARPP: Serigaya Methamphetamine Relapse Prevention Program (Japanese-developed CBT approach)
• Substances: Alcohol use disorder (most established treatment), stimulants (methamphetamine major concern), limited MAT for opioids
• Settings: Psychiatric hospitals with addiction units, community mental health centres, compulsory treatment facilities (criminal justice system)

Regional Mobility and Credential Recognition

Cross-Regional Recognition Challenges

• Significant Barriers: Language proficiency (Mandarin/Japanese required for clinical practice), cultural competency, different diagnostic and therapeutic frameworks
• Pathways: Research/academic positions, international hospitals/clinics serving expatriates, training and consultation roles
• Credential Recognition: Australian degrees respected but not sufficient for independent practice without local licensure

China ↔ Japan:

• Limited Direct Recognition: Both countries require national licensure examinations in local language
• Academic Exchange: Growing research collaborations, student exchange programs
• Shared Challenges: Adapting Western therapeutic models, addressing mental health stigma, workforce shortages

International Professionals in Region:

• Australia: Most accessible for English-speaking professionals; skilled migration pathways for psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, OTs
• China: Challenging for foreign professionals; typically limited to international hospitals, universities, or consulting roles
• Japan: Very challenging; language barrier (JLPT N1 proficiency essential), national exams in Japanese, strict licensure requirements

Trans-Tasman Agreement (Australia-New Zealand)

• Psychologists, psychiatrists (medical practitioners), nurses, occupational therapists covered
• Facilitates workforce mobility across Tasman Sea

International Medical Graduate (IMG) Pathways

• AMC Pathway: Australian Medical Council assessment for IMGs
• Competent Authority Pathway: For graduates from comparable jurisdictions (UK, Ireland, USA, Canada, NZ)
• Specialist Pathway: For trained specialists seeking recognition
• Language: English proficiency required (IELTS or equivalent)

China:

• Foreign Doctors: Generally cannot practice independently; must pass Chinese medical licensing examination
• Alternative Roles: International hospitals, teaching, research, consulting

Japan:

• Foreign Medical Degrees: Generally not recognised for independent practice
• National Examination Required: Japanese medical license exam (in Japanese)
• EPA Pathway: Economic Partnership Agreements with select countries (Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam) for nurses

Regional Educational Trends and Innovations

Technology and Digital Mental Health

• Leading Innovation: Digital mental health platforms (e-headspace, MindSpot, This Way Up)
• Telehealth: Expanded significantly post-COVID, Medicare rebates for telehealth psychology/psychiatry
• Training Integration: Telepsychology competencies in graduate programs

China:

• Rapid Growth: Online counselling platforms (massive scale given population)
• Mobile Mental Health: Apps for self-help, psychoeducation, symptom tracking
• Challenges: Quality control, credential verification, ethical standards for online practice

Japan:

• Conservative Adoption: Slower uptake than Australia/China
• COVID Acceleration: Increased acceptance of telehealth
• Cultural Barriers: Preference for in-person therapeutic relationships, technology hesitancy among older practitioners

Cultural Competency and Indigenous Mental Health

• Mandatory Training: Indigenous mental health competency in all professional programs
• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Mental Health: Specialised training pathways, community-controlled health services
• Cultural Safety: Integration of cultural safety principles across all mental health education

China:

• Ethnic Minority Considerations: 55 recognised ethnic minorities; limited specific training
• Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Integration: Some programs integrate TCM concepts with modern psychology/psychiatry
• Cultural Psychology: Growing emphasis on Chinese cultural psychology distinct from Western models

Japan:

• Cultural Adaptation: Deep integration of Japanese cultural concepts in therapy (wa, amae, haji)
• Traditional Approaches: Morita therapy (accepting reality as it is), Naikan therapy (introspection)
• Modern Challenges: Addressing unique cultural phenomena (hikikomori, karoshi/overwork death)

Workforce Development Initiatives

• Headspace: National youth mental health initiative with integrated workforce training
• NDIS (National Disability Insurance Scheme): Creating new employment opportunities for mental health professionals
• Rural Incentives: Scholarships, loan forgiveness for professionals working in rural/remote areas

China:

• Healthy China 2030: National strategy including mental health workforce expansion
• University Expansion: Rapid increase in psychology and social work programs
• Challenge: Quality control amid rapid growth, urban-rural disparities

Japan:

• CPP Establishment (2018): National psychology license aimed at standardising training and increasing workforce
• Disaster Mental Health: Specialised training following 2011 earthquake/tsunami, ongoing disaster preparedness
• Aging Society Focus: Geriatric mental health emphasis given demographic trends

Comparative Strengths and Challenges

Australia

• Well-regulated national professional standards (AHPRA)
• Internationally recognised qualifications
• English language accessibility
• Medicare-funded mental health services (Better Access program)
• Strong research infrastructure (Group of Eight universities)
• Area-of-practice endorsements allowing specialisation

Challenges:

• Geographic barriers: Rural and remote service access
• Long waiting times for public mental health services
• Limited Medicare sessions (though expanded)
• High cost of living in major cities

China

• Massive scale and rapid expansion of training programs
• 2018 CPP national license (significant professionalisation milestone)
• Government commitment to mental health (Healthy China 2030)
• Innovation in digital mental health platforms
• Growing research output and international collaborations

Challenges:

• Severe workforce shortage (especially psychiatrists: ~2-3 per 100,000 vs. WHO recommended 10+)
• Significant urban-rural disparities in access and quality
• Persistent stigma around mental illness
• Quality control challenges amid rapid program growth
• Limited integration between medical and psychological services
• Developing professions (OT, creative therapies, addiction counselling) lack formal structure

Japan

• Universal health insurance covering mental health services
• 2018 CPP national psychology license (historic professionalisation)
• Strong psychiatric OT tradition
• Unique cultural therapies (Morita, Naikan) alongside Western approaches
• Dual social work license system (CSW and PSW for mental health)

Challenges:

• Cultural stigma limiting help-seeking
• High psychiatric hospitalisation rates (shifting slowly to community models)
• Language barrier for international professionals (Japanese proficiency essential)
• Aging population straining mental health services
• Unique cultural phenomena requiring specialised approaches (hikikomori, school refusal)
• Limited prescriptive authority for non-physicians

Salary and Compensation Comparison

Clinical Psychologists (Early Career, in USD equivalent)

Psychiatrists (in USD equivalent)

Note: Cost of living varies dramatically. China's lower salaries reflect lower cost of living, though major cities (Beijing, Shanghai) approach developed-nation costs. Japan's cost of living is very high, particularly in Tokyo. Australia's major cities (Sydney, Melbourne) have high housing costs.

Student and Professional Mobility Considerations

For International Students

• English instruction (no language barrier)
• Post-study work rights (2-4 years depending on degree)
• Pathway to permanent residency (skilled migration for psychologists, psychiatrists, OTs, social workers)
• World-class universities (Group of Eight)
• High tuition for international students ($30-60K AUD/year)
• High cost of living

Choosing China:

• Lower tuition (especially public universities, some scholarships available)
• Lower cost of living (outside major cities)
• Exposure to largest population and diverse mental health challenges
• Emerging field opportunities (ground floor of profession development)
• Language barrier (Mandarin essential)
• Limited practice opportunities for international graduates (credential recognition challenges)
• Cultural adjustment

Choosing Japan:

• Unique cultural perspective and traditional therapies
• High-quality education system
• Technological innovation
• Significant language barrier (Japanese essential; JLPT N1 for practice)
• Very limited international student pathways to licensure
• High cost of living (especially Tokyo)
• Cultural barriers and hierarchical professional structures

For Migrating Professionals

• Best Option in Region: Clearest pathways for skilled migration
• Skilled Occupation Lists: Psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, occupational therapists on MLTSSL
• Requirements: Credential assessment, English proficiency (IELTS/PTE), skills assessment by relevant authority
• Pathway: Temporary skilled visa → permanent residency

To China:

• Limited Options: Very challenging for foreign professionals to practice independently
• Alternative Roles: Teaching, research, international hospitals serving expatriates
• Work Visa Requirements: Credential verification, background checks, health clearance

To Japan:

• Very Challenging: Strict licensure requirements, language barrier
• Alternative Roles: International schools, expatriate counselling, research/teaching
• Language: JLPT N1 (highest level) generally necessary for healthcare practice

Future Directions and Regional Collaboration

Emerging Trends

1. Digital Mental Health Integration: All three countries investing in telehealth infrastructure and digital interventions
2. Workforce Expansion: Concerted efforts to increase mental health professional numbers, especially in underserved areas
3. Stigma Reduction: Public education campaigns to normalise mental health help-seeking
4. Evidence-Based Practice: Growing emphasis on research-supported interventions across all professions
5. Cultural Adaptation: Continued refinement of Western therapeutic models to fit Asian cultural contexts

Research Collaborations

• Australia-China Partnerships: Joint research centres, student exchanges, collaborative grants
• Japan-Australia Links: Trans-Pacific research collaborations, particularly in aging and dementia
• Regional Conferences: Asia-Pacific psychology, psychiatry, and social work conferences fostering knowledge exchange

Policy Harmonisation Efforts

• WHO Western Pacific Regional Office: Coordinating mental health policy development
• Professional Associations: International divisions of APA, IFP, IASSW facilitating regional connections
• Mutual Learning: Australia learning from Asian cultural approaches; China and Japan adopting Australian community mental health models

Quick Reference: Degree Equivalencies

Conclusion

For students and professionals navigating this region, success depends on carefully matching personal goals, language capabilities, and career aspirations with the distinctive characteristics of each system. Those seeking international mobility and English-language accessibility will gravitate toward Australia. Those drawn to the world's largest mental health market, emerging professional opportunities, and cultural immersion may choose China despite challenges. Those interested in unique cultural therapeutic approaches, advanced technology integration, and Japanese society may pursue training in Japan, accepting significant language and integration requirements.

Regional collaboration—through research partnerships, student exchanges, and professional associations—continues to strengthen, creating opportunities for cross-pollination of ideas and approaches. The coming decades will likely see further professionalisation, workforce expansion, and innovative adaptations of mental health care delivery across the Asia-Pacific, benefiting from both shared learning and respect for cultural distinctiveness.

Related Resources

• Australia: Mental Health Professional Academic Credentials
• China: Academic Credentials for Mental Health Professionals
• Japan: Academic Credentials for Mental Health Professionals

Other Regional Hubs:

• North American Mental Health Academic Pathways Regional Hub
• European Mental Health Academic Pathways Regional Hub
• Latin American Mental Health Academic Pathways Regional Hub

Professional Organisations:

• Australia: AHPRA (www.ahpra.gov.au), Psychology Board of Australia, AASW
• China: Chinese Psychological Society (www.cpsbeijing.org), National Health Commission
• Japan: Japanese Psychological Association, JSPN (Japanese Society of Psychiatry and Neurology)

Credential Recognition:

• Australia: Australian Medical Council (AMC) for IMGs, APAC for psychology programs
• China: Chinese Service Centre for Scholarly Exchange (CSCSE)
• Japan: MHLW for professional licensure